Approaches To Political Science

Approaches To Political Science During the post- World War II period the predominant impetus that gave augmentation to behaviouralism as an approach to political science was the end of colonialism, and the subsequent birth of many new nation states. There was a general consensus that political science had to get into the game and offer assistance for national development if it was to be relevant to the contemporary world (Pye: 2006, p.799). Kavanagh (1983, p.196) believes that this was driven partly by impatience, growing during the inter-war years, with a perceived preoccupation with formal structures and institutions. Many histories of political science agree that the multi-dimensional and contradictory nature of politics has resulted in relative difficulty in establishing a clear definition of behaviouralism. As Waldo (1975, p. 58) specified whilst writing about the emergence of behaviouralism, what happened wascomplicated and somewhat obscure. Almost all those who endeavour to define behaviouralism acknowledge that every man puts his own emphasis and thereby becomes his own behaviouralist (Easton: 1962 p. 9) and attempts at coming to any complete definition of behaviouralism are probably futile given the diversity of those who followed its banner (Seidelman and Harpham: 1985 p. 151). However, for the purpose of this essay the behaviouralist approach will be defined as an attempt to improve our understanding of politics by seeking to explain the empirical aspects of political life by means of methods, theories, and criteria of proof that are acceptable according to the canons conventions and assumptions of modern empirical science (Dahl: 1961 p.767). The behaviouralistic revolution has had a substantial involvement in the evolution of political science, in which its scientific methodology and value centred approach (Sharma and Sharma: 2003, p.377) has influenced the subject matter and form of political science. Behaviouralism incorporates four foundational assumptions. Firstly, that there are discoverable uniformities in political behaviour commonly referred to as the regularity principle. Attempts to develop generalizations about political behaviour, i.e. to advance hypothesis about the relationships to discover uniformities or regularities or laws (Van Dyke: 1960, p.159). Secondly, behaviouralism dictates that the use empirical data is imperative for the means of maintaining a scientific approach to the study of politics (Brown: 2011). Thirdly, that there is a clear distinction between values and facts. A clear delineation between values and facts as well as, perhaps most importantly, the belief that facts remain neutral between various theories (Brown: 2011, p.2). Lastly, theories should be capable of being tested against observations. Crucially, genuinely explanatory theories must be capable of generating empirical predictions that can be tested against observation (Saunders: 2010, p.52 ). Theoretically at best behavioural research can produce a substantial theoretical and empirical contribution to the understanding and explanation of social behaviour (Sharma and Sharma: 2003, p.380). However, as I will discuss the full application of these assumption is rarely applied. For its advocates, behaviouralism has a number of advantages over other approaches to the study of political science. Possibly the least controversial assertion made on the approachs behalf was that it broadened the scope of political science, loosening previous constraints. Behaviouralism diverted attention away from conventionally legalistic study of constitutions and political institutions towards the political activities of real individuals in all stages of political science perhaps the least controversial claim made on the approchs behalf was that it widened the scope of poltical science. Behaviouralism, argue its champion, focused attention away from traditionally legalistic study of political institutions and consitutions towards the political actions of real people in all levels of political sceience developments in computer hardware and software has enabled the collection and processing of enormous quantities of data a behavioural emphasis is central to teh study of elctions and voting, perhaps the best known and most publiced mainfestation off the study of politics This essay will be split up into 3 parts, critically assessing why behaviouralism is an inadequate approach to the study of political science. Firstly, the essay will argue that an attachment to positivism is an inherent weakness in behaviouralism. Secondly, the essay will argue that both methodological potholes and maintaining subjectivity, challenge the impartiality of data collection, inclusion, and interpretation. Thirdly, the essay will explain why politics is not a natural science, focusing on variations in governance and human behaviour throughout the world. Positivism as a feature of Behaviouralism Positivism is a paradigm which states that all true knowledge is scientific in which all things are ultimately measurable (Brown: 2011, p.3). It is a notion intrinsically related to reductionism, in that both encompass the opinion that entities of one kind () are reducible to entities of another (Kim: 1965, p.318). As positivism is value free it contrasts with normative theory by providing descriptive rather than prescriptive statements. The first major critique of the behaviouralist approach is the opinion that it is inextricably linked to positivism, where it is reasoned that there is little to no room for normative discourse. The cost of the scientific identity to the discipline has been the marginalization of normative political theory (Duvall: 1998, p.1). In fact, positivism calls for an end to normative theory since it did not assist an empirical approach to the study of political science. However, countless scholars regard positivism with disdain, believing it to be adequate reason for the rejection of behaviouralism as a study of political science. Mises (1951) believes that positivism bares three major flaws, which collectively undermine its credibility within any concept, particularly behaviouralism. Behaviouralism complicated link with positivism has meant the political school of thought remains vulnerable to positivist criticisms (Sharma and Sharma: 2003, p.380). Firstly, normative discourse is largely discounted in the behaviouralist approach due to the fact that it cannot be defined by empirical or definitional statements. Similarly, under stringent positivist conditions there is no role for aesthetic and moral arguments, as these are not limited to empirical and definitional statements. Furthermore, there can be no role for the sort of hermeneutic analysis that attempts to understand understand social behaviour through deep reflection about the nature of human perceptions, thought processes and motivations (Sanders: 2010, p.51). If positivism seeks to reject these methods of reflection, the argument runs, it must be at fault. Whilst empiricism results in exactness it also has the additional value of instigating empirically falsifiable hypothesis, therefore it is contented that this dismissal of normative discourse is perilous. Sanders (2010, p.51) explained that the large class of statements that positivism labels as meaningless in fact contain many ideas that can add very significantly to our understanding of social behaviour and the human condition. Although I accept that the rejection of normative theory is paramount to maintaining a neutral inquiry. I believe that the failure to use deductive inquiry discredits the productiveness of behaviouralism in understanding the more subtle workings of the political world. Therefore it is argued that positivists underestimate the intricate relationships between theory and observation, particula rly in separating the effects of phenomena that are interrelated (Sharma and Sharma: 2003, p.379). Secondly, positivism is attacked on the basis of its exclusivity, and the assumption that the study of politics can be emulated by the study of natural science in order to successfully explain social phenomena. For example, one is unable to empirically research the relevant processes that lead to women often failing to ascertain top jobs within business. A positivist would only stick with what can be empirically established, rather than engage in more abstract theoretical reflection. As a direct result positivism fails to acknowledge the spatial trends, processes and intricacies which are involved in socioeconomic and political workings of life (Cloke, Philio and Sadler: 1992 p.15). Kavanagh (1983, p.192) agrees with this stating, normative theory always contains an element of the potential, and its validity is not in any way vitiated by people behaving differently from the pattern lai d down in the theory. Thirdly, positivists are criticised for their autonomy, they argue that science should be neutral, value free and objective. Critics of positivism believe that this creates a false sense of objectivity by artificially separating the observer from the observed, denying the existence of strong correspondence links (ibid, p.14). It is therefore argued that any weakness inherent in positivism must also therefore be inherent in behaviouralism (Sanders: 2010 p.51) and ultimately this acts as a fundamental anchor in the paradigm. Can the study of politics be value free? One of the initial assertions of the early behaviouralists was that hypothetical understanding could only be attained through a process of enquiry that began with theory-free observation of all the facts up to now and which then derived law-like generalizations inductively from the empirical regularities that were observed (Sanders: 2010, p.50). According to behaviouralists researchers take great troubles in order to assert the value free nature of their approach to the study of political science (Bay: 1965) and as result the political analyst is concerned with a scientific study of politics in its functional aspects. As such he has nothing to do with values or morals (Jayapalan: 2002, p.82). Theoretically the scientific methodological approach used in behaviouralism should produce theories and observations which remain unbiased, with a neutral point of view. However, in reality both methodological potholes and pseudo-ethical neutrality compromise the impartiality of empiricism, chal lenging the quality of research and observation. As a result, many critics of behaviouralism have identified numerous problems surrounding the collection, inclusion and interpretation of data, believing them to act as a critical shortcoming of the behaviouralistic approach. Huron (2000, p.3) believes that these fallacies, problems, biases, and effects that scholars have, over the centuries, recognized as confounding the conduct of good research. Although I acknowledge that these problems are not unique to behavioralism, as they affect every study of political science. I believe it is imperative to discuss them as they cause the behaviourists claim of objectivity to be problematic. Ultimately, this weakens the validity of behaviouralism as an approach to the study of political science. Methodological potholes Firstly, a lack of researcher neutrality and objectivity during data collection undermines the consistency and strength of empiricism. Proponents of a perspective may provide asymmetrical (one-sided) information, offering evidence that supports their conclusions while ignoring or suppressing other information (Litman: 2012, p.3). Cloke, Philio and Sadler (1992, p.18) refer to this concept as selective empiricism, in which researchers are able to cherry-pick data in order to obtain favourable outcomes. Questions can be defined, statistics selected and analysis structured to reach a desired outcome (Litman, 2012 p.12). For example, as researchers endeavour to remain policy relevant, this can lead to the production of research that conforms to the priorities of power (Wearing: 2010). Furthermore, the choice of research topics will undoubtedly bare some reflection on the researchers moral and political priorities. Research is framed and conducted is bound to reflect assumptions which wh ether held consciously, semi-consciously or unconsciously remain of a moral and political nature (Wearing: 2010). This selective or crude empiricism negates objectivity and neutrality and results in a lack of uniformity. Therefore, this lack of consistency entirely repudiates the legitimacy of behaviouralism as an adequate approach to the study of political science. Secondly, Sanders (2010) and Easton (1962) have argued that both a tendency towards mindless empiricism (Sanders, 2010, p.52) and a lack of quality empirical data have both undermined the legitimacy of empiricism. Sanders (2010 p.52) has argued that the indiscriminate inclusion of data has caused a situation in which behaviouralist emphasise what can be easily measured rather than what might be theoretically important tending to observe readily observed phenomena (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) rather than the more subtle, and perhaps deeper, structural forces that promote stability and change in social and political systems (Sanders: 2010, p.52-53). Many aspects of political life are subtle and are therefore unquantifiable. For example, the quality of interpersonal relationships between political leaders is not something that one statistically appraise, but yet the extent to which these leaders relate to one another could end up being important as to whether they cooperate. Similarly, Easton (196 2) supports this contention and believes that these more subtle workings of politics coupled with a lack of quality data has resulted in difficultly when using empirically falsifiable methods, and thus it has been suggested that behaviouralists chose their studies based on what is simple to test empirically, and not on the basis of academic worth. Not in light of theoretical or ethical relevance, but largely on grounds of accidental availability of technically adequate means of research (ibid, p.19). Sanders (2010) further supports this contention, asserting that in order to preserve the integrity of behaviouralism, behaviouralists have a tendency to circumvent or reject explanations that cannot be tested empirically. To rectify these issues would necessitate the abandonment of strict empiricism (Easton: 1962, p.19), which in quintessence is the pillar of behaviouralism. Whilst it would undeniable expand the credibility and relevance of the paradigm, abandoning such a fundamental fa cet would act to challenge and circumvent the other criteria that the paradigm necessitates. Ultimately, a deficiency of data combined with gratuitous empiricism suggests that behaviouralism is an incomplete notion; consequently this undermines its credibility as an adequate approach to the study of political science. Different understandings lead to different explanations The initial behaviouralists declared their approach to social enquiry to be both value-free and scientific. They claimed not be seeking to justify any particular ethical or political stance (Sanders: 2010, p.51) but rather sought to uncover the facts through impartial observation and to offer politically-neutral theories that would explain them in the most parsimonious way (ibid). However, as Nietzsche (1880) famously said there are no facts, only interpretations, no more so does this apply than to the interpretation of empirical data. Many critics of behaviouralism believe that different scholars studying the same problem are able to come to different conclusions, this initiated the argument that different understanding leads to different explanations. Be it subconsciously or intentional researchers are able to manipulate observations and theory, this undermines the objectivity of the test. Above all, the researcher himself is influenced to a certain extent, by his value preferences (Jayapalan: 2002, p.83). Many critics adamantly dispute the possibility of researcher neutrality, believing researcher bias to be inevitable. It is contended that objective theory and observation is always impossible, as some level of initial theoretical understanding is needed prior to the researcher deciding what will, and what should be observed. Sibley (1967) concurs with this criticism, and cites that the political investigator, no less than others, must have some notion of his own order of priorities before he proceeds to use the behavioural or any other approach (ibid, p.53). Hollis Smith (1991) support both these statements, explaining that there is no way of relating experience freely of its interpretation There are no brute facts-no facts prior to interpretation (ibid, p.52) Ultimately, it is suggested that researcher impartiality is idealistic and naÃÆ' ¯ve, and even subconsciously researchers are able to influence theory and observation. Marsh and Furlong (2002) sup ports this contention, going further to suggest that this is caused by any knowledge we derive (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) is mediated by the concepts we use to analyse it, so there is no way of classifying, or even describing, experience without interpreting it (ibid, p.23). Ultimately, I believe that a researchers individual experiences and values are inescapable, and thus are inseparable from their research. It this lack of uniformity and neutrality which causes the behaviouralists claims that theory can be objective to be a largely irresolvable weakness. Politics does not emulate the natural sciences In order to theorise the behaviouralist assume generalisations or tendency statements to help study the observed and observable. They believe there to be an expectable pattern in political phenomenon in which the regularity principle can be applied to political behaviour (Jayapalan: 2002). Political scientists operated under the pretence that humankind was perfectible and therefore a dependence on scientific political information would help to solve societal and political troubles indefinitely (Merriam: 1934). To some extent this is true, society and mankind can be predicable. There are many regularities in social life, such as getting out of bed, going to work, or reading a morning paper (Kavanagh: 1983, p.194). However, this is not always the case; both politics and humankind can be highly unpredictable in their nature, encompassing countless unforeseen circumstances and irregularities. Therefore, it is contended that there are no uniformities and laws on human behaviour and political science. . There are no regularities in political reality as it consists largely of unique elements (ibid, p.82). Therefore, it is argued that these unobservable factors and variations in politics throughout the world undermine behaviourism as a study of politics. Behaviouralists exclude the norms of human teleology (Johari: 2006, p.611). Traditionalists believe that as politics and human nature is diverse and complicated, it therefore cannot be generalised by certain pattern and regularities within human behaviour. Thus it is argued that social phenomena are [sic] quite different from natural phenomena and require different strategies of explanation. (Kavanagh: 1983, p.195) Human behaviour is shaped through culture, environment and experiences. It forms unique principles, inspirations and motives which vary from person to person. Thus, I believe that as individualism flourishes, behaviour cannot be categorised and uniformed together as mutuality. It is too easy to speak of a groups or nations behaviour as if it were identical with that of the individual person (Eulau: 1962, p.15). Hindmoor (2006) provides a good example of the unpredictability of human behaviour, finding that large numbers of the electorate, for example, do not vote for parties with policies and strategies that would leave them better off. One explanation for this finding is that voters rationally pursue interests other than their own material wellbeing (ibid, p.52). Yet these ulterior motives are impossible to gauge and quantify, providing yet another shortcoming of behaviouralism. Human ingenuity was always capable of evading them, in which they would lose their validity (Varma: 1979, p. 29). In addition, some aspects are politics are far too complicated and diverse for the use of empiricism. An area where a morally laden approach such as foreign aid is needed causes the behavioural approach to appear inadequate. The behavioural approach is able to deliver reliable knowledge only with regard to political commonplaces or trivia (Easton: 1962 p.19). Johari (2006) goes further, believing that too many inconsistencies and historic contingencies exist within human nature to allow anything but a very general kind of statement of uniformities. Ultimately, modern day politics operates on a global basis encompassing many cultures and forms and styles of government. Therefore, I believe that a major flaw of behaviouralism is that it is too narrow in its approach, ignoring global variations in human behaviour and styles of governance. Behaviouralists are charged with committing crimes of vulgar reductionism (Johari: 2006, p.611), and ultimately this acts as a fundamental a nchor in the paradigm. Conclusion In conclusion, although it is contended by certain scholars that there are some undoubted benefits of a behaviourist approach to the study of political science, the weaknesses contained within the theory are insurmountable. This essay accepts the three key epistemological criticisms of positivism. Firstly, that it marginalises normative and metaphysical discourse; this prevents one from fully understanding the subtle intricacies of politics. Secondly, positivism is challenged on the basis of its exclusivity, which thus fails to recognise the spatial trends, processes and intricacies which are involved in socioeconomic and political workings of life. Thirdly, I reject positivism based upon its autonomy of knowledge, which artificially detaches the observer from the observed. This intrinsic relationship between behaviouralism and positivism has meant that behaviouralism remains susceptible to the criticism of positivism. Therefore on this basis it undermines behaviouralism as an adequa te approach to the study of political science. Furthermore, I reject the regularities principle as a credible feature of behaviourism. Although I have acknowledged that some regularity exists in society, the nature of mankind and politics is largely unpredictable, and cannot be associated with the natural sciences because of this. In addition, although I have accepted that methodological potholes and researcher bias are not unique to just behaviouralism, I believe that they undermine behaviouralisms fundamental aim to remain objective. Ultimately, because of these three reasons I believe behavioralism lacks any real validity as an adequate approach to the study of political science.

Analyzing Atheism Essays -- Religion, Spirituality

Religion is one of the touchiest subjects in America. It is something that is rarely on the forefront of many people’s minds but as soon as someone brings it up, everyone has an opinion. Similarly, the idea of no religion, of atheism, is equally opinionated. While Americans of â€Å"faith† often have conflicting opinions with each other, they often stand united on the stance of atheism. For them, atheism is bad and atheists are bad. However, what really is an atheist? At its most basic, an atheist is merely an individual who rejects the idea of god and religion. It is nothing more, nothing less. Nevertheless, many people of faith attach secondary implications to this definition. They unify atheists under a series of assumptions concerning morality, belief, organization, and just plain illogical misconception. As an atheist of eight years myself, I find such assumptions to be insulting and prejudiced. I am an individual. My lack of belief does not entail other beliefs. T he same is true for all atheists. The first misconception I bring up is the most radical and illogical. Very few hold this sort of belief, but those that do I am unlikely to sway with simple logic and common sense. They are the type of people who only see what they want to see and hold onto their preconceived prejudices like a life preserver in a dark sea. Thus, I will address it first and be as quick and succinct as possible. As an atheist, I do not believe in the devil and so I cannot be a Satanist. That is a logical impossibility. The next misconception is a little more subtle, but by far the more widespread. Many people believe that morals are a religious construction and that without religion there is no morality. Thus, they conclude that atheists are amoral ... ...e science of the universe and the science of life are beautiful and help give meaning to existence to me in ways that religion never could. At the end of it all according to science, we are all made up of the same stuff as stars. Within us all are the building blocks of creation, of everything. The last and overarching point I am trying to illustrate is the atheism in not a standardized system of beliefs like religion is. Being an atheist does not entail anything other than a disbelief in deities and religion. While it is likely that atheists will share other beliefs it is not because they are atheists. To say otherwise is to make a baseless and prejudiced assumption. Atheism is not a religion or a belief system; one is not a follower of atheism. We are individuals with differing thoughts and opinions on the many myriad of issues that we often are lumped under.

ARCO arena :: essays research papers

Even though the friendly confines of ARCO Arena hasn't equated into NBA championships (yet) for the Sacramento Kings, ARCO stands as one of the toughest - if not the toughest - places to play in the entire league. The Kings sported a 36-5 home mark in 2003, the best home record in the NBA. All five losses came at the hands of eventual playoff teams, including two of them against the eventual NBA champion San Antonio Spurs. The Kings record in ARCO over the last three seasons is an amazing 104-19, another NBA best. The Pistons are 75-48 over that same span at the Palace at Auburn Hills, a full 29 games worse. ARCO Arena was built on 105 acres of undeveloped land just outside the Sacramento city limits. The arena cost 40 million dollars to build, and none of the cost came by way of taxpayer money. ARCO was built primalrily for basketball, so all 17, 317 seats have great sight lines for watching a game. The outside of the building is in no way what someone would call attractive. Basically, it is a tan square in the middle of nowhere. However, it dosen't seem that the repulsive outside looks of ARCO affect Kings fans from coming to the games. Every Kings' game has sold out since ARCO was opened in 1988. What really makes ARCO the best venue in the NBA is the Sacramento fans. The combination of the stadium seating having a "right on top of the court" feel along with ARCO dubbed as the loudest stadium in the NBA causes havoc for visiting teams. Just ask the Lakers. As fans enter ARCO, they see many television screens showing the Kings' in-house pre-game show. The Kings are one of very few teams with that perk. The convenience dosen't end when the game is over, either. ARCO has over 12,000 spaces in close proximity to the arena, and the waiting time to leave the lot is always kept to a minimum. The Palace at Auburn Hills seats 4,000 more fans than ARCO, yet has two-thirds the parking. Combine that with two different interstates that weave around the Palace, and you have a parking nightmare. Another thing that makes ARCO a better arena is having better comfort in the fact that you won't be attacked by a hobo on the way to the car. Criminals in Detroit and Los Angeles probably make six figures annually by ruthlessley mugging some 12-year-old of his only 14 dollars that he made by opening a lemonade stand.

Providing visual support Essay

Nancy is 24 year old women and a house wife by profession. She is disabled by birth and totally dependant on wheelchair. She stays with her husband, who is software professional and busy most of the time. Being a housewife, Nancy has vey little technology knowledge and finds it difficult to use technology spontaneously. Nancy doesn’t want her disability to become her weakness and wants to work like a normal housewife, like cooking for her husband, washing utensils etc. She wants a kitchen which is universally designed and where she should be able to work effectively like a normal person with ease of use and learning being her first priority. How should an interior designer design a universally designed kitchen keeping in mind people like Nancy? †¢ Making the height of the kitchen cabinet, Cook top, Microwave stand accessible by wheelchair. †¢ Having an adjustable-height cabinets, can help all users to use them effectively. Also customizable design which can be changed based on user preferences also makes design effective and more usable. †¢ Having a removable sink and drying rack will give sufficient space for food preparation. This can again be re-fitted as and when required. Thus giving flexibility to people like Nancy or old aged people, who can’t stand and cook. †¢ Foldable cabinet doors under cooktop, providing sufficient knee space. †¢ Providing visual support can also help users to use kitchen more easily and effectively. †¢ Voice based support in kitchen can also be a good idea, thus making design accessible for people with low vision. †¢ Automated dishwasher or microwave system can help them easily placing dish without much effort. Let’s see some examples of universally designed kitchens Persona 3. He is a retired professional and stays alone in his 2 bedroom apartment which is on the 10th floor. He finds it difficult to walk and climb stairs and also have sight problem. Rodney has very little technology knowledge and finds it difficult to remember things, due to his growing age. He depends on electronic wheelchair most of the time. He needs an elevator system in his apartment which can accommodate his wheelchair also, making his life easy at this age. How can we make a universally designed elevator? †¢ Increasing the width of the elevator hence giving ample space to use wheelchairs and thus making it approachable †¢ Big display screen, which displays the floor details big and clear, thus accommodating people like Rodney to use it with ease †¢ Voice based support system, which informs the user which floor the user is in, can also help the disabled user to use them effectively. Let’s see example of a universally designed elevator Conclusion: Irrespective of age, ability or disability and situations, every has the right to effectively use any products or services, hence designers should always be conscious about this fact and implement their design ideas to serve one and everyone. This is what universal design means. Bibliography http://idea.ap.buffalo.edu/ http://www. design. ncsu. edu/cud/about_ud/udprincipleshtmlformat. html#top Frascara J. , (1997), User-Centred Graphic Design: Mass Communication and Social Change, Taylor Francis, London

Erikson’s Stages of Development, Relating to the Great Santini Essay

Erikson’s Stages of Development, Relating to the Great Santini The Great Santini is about a father who is a great pilot in the military. He uses his military training to help him be a father; treating his children like recruits. He has a supportive wife, and four children, including Ben, the oldest. He commands his children and they must obey his every orders. Ben has a hard time dealing with his father and his need for acceptance. The movie focuses on his cluelessness to family life and being a father. Ben has a hard time succeeding through the stages of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, because his father’s authoritarian parenting styles keep him from progressing. Authoritarian parents are â€Å"parents who make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish transgressions, and value obedience to authority† (E. Wood, S. Wood, & Boyd, 2011, p. 261). During Erikson’s first stage, trust vs. mistrust, â€Å"infants learn to trust or mistrust depending on the degree and regularity of care, love, and affection provided by parents or caregivers† (Wood et al. 2011, p. 261). When playing a basketball game with his son, he resorts to pushing and shoving in order to win. Ben’s father tells him that no one in the family has ever beaten him in anything, then, Ben makes the last basket and beats his dad, his dad changes up the rules and makes him play for another basket, this time he begins to call his son a little girl and tells him he is nothing. Ben is unable to develop trust with his father, which will cause an unhealthy personality. Researchers have concluded, â€Å"Erikson’s theoretical propositions have had wide influences on understanding and further theorizing in areas of child development, adolescence, adulthood, and aging. Much child-rearing, educational, and clinical practice has also been influenced, either explicitly or implicitly, by his stage model of development† (Rosenthal, Gurney, & Moore, 1981). Ben is more harsh and rough on the outside, but soft and sensitive on the inside, because his father has not shown him love and compassion. His mother, who is loving and supportive, helps balance out his personality. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt is Erickson’s second stage, this stage is when â€Å"Children learn to express their will and independence, to exercise some control, and to make choices, if not, they experience shame and doubt† (Wood et al. , 2011, p. 261). Ben’s father holds such high standards that he must come out autonomy because his father has told him there is no other option. This also goes along with stage three, initiative vs. guilt, when â€Å" Children begin to initiate activities, to plan and undertake tasks, and to enjoy developing motor and other abilities. If not allowed to initiate or if made to feel stupid and considered a nuisance, they may develop a sense of guilt† (Wood et al. , 2011, p. 261). Ben has a great amount of pressure on him to be the best and do the best, he is afraid that he will not live up to his father’s expectations. When Ben had finally beat his father in the backyard basketball game, his father wanted him to win by two baskets instead of one, he was putting him down and telling his son he wasn’t good enough. His mother had to step in to support her son and says to her husband, â€Å"Don’t you talk to me like that! Now, he beat you and it was beautiful†(Carlinio, 1979). His mother helps him become initiative rather than his father who makes him feel guilty for not being good enough. Ben has major conflict in the stage of industry vs. inferiority, this is â€Å" Children develop industriousness and feel pride in accomplishing tasks, making things, and doing things. If not encouraged or if rebuffed by parents and teachers they may develop a sense of inferiority† (Wood et al. , 2011, p. 261). Ben has always been told to be the best; he is becoming a well-rounded boy on the outside because of his acceleration in sports and school. He takes a sense of pride in his work, but on the inside still doubts himself. He knows his father wants more from him, Ben knows he will never be able to be as good as his father. In the stage, identity vs. role confusion he is finally able to start caring about his wants more than his fathers. At his high school basketball game his father is screaming at him from the sidelines and he chooses not to listen and does what he thinks is best. He wins the game on his own and sees that he can do it without his father. The movie ends about the time that Ben is in the stage of a young adult, â€Å" Adolescents must make the transition from childhood to adulthood, establish an identity, develop a sense of self, and consider a future occupational identity. Otherwise, role confusion can result† (Wood et al. , 2011, p. 261). Ben is able to love his father after a night of his eighteenth birthday, when his father becomes extremely drunk, and lets down his guard, and makes a toast to his son, â€Å"I’d like to propose a toast, to my son. He is eighteen today. He has just ordered his first drink. Before he drinks it, I’d like to wish him a long life, a wife as fine as his mother, and a son as fine as he’s been. To my son† (Carlinio 1979). This shows Ben that his father loves and respects him. He is able to show compassion to his father, making it easier for him to show compassion to others. Because of Ben’s fathers authoritarian parenting styles and high demands, Ben has a hard time maturing through Erickson’s stages, but Ben is finally able to develop a sense of self. When watching The Great Santini, I noticed that Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development show through in Ben’s personality and self. Each stage Ben experiences, and depending on how he is treated, will affect the outcome of the person he will become. The reason people are not the same is because every one experiences different things during each stage, which makes every one different. Each person must work through the conflicts in each stage to become a healthy person, just like Ben does in the movie.

Lord of the Flies Brings Abstract Idea Through Its Symbol Essay

God loads people with humanity and savagery. It depends on how people manage it in everyday life. It also shows in Golding’s novel Lord of the Flies. This story concerns to how people run the instinct to live such rules, peacefully, moral and value. The story begins when a group of English schoolboys isolated on an island after their plane has crashed during a war. They are Ralph, Piggy, Jack, Simon, Roger, Sam and Eric. They tried to survive until they could find by others. The conflict among them showed their personal characters; Ralph was chose as protagonist character, he was elected as a leader of the group and tried to handle his friends to build a miniature civilization on the island until they could be saved. In this story, Golding represented Ralph as person who had humanity instinct. Jack was antagonist character because through the story he showed barbarian instinct which is wild, savage, and brutish. Simon was represented as a good boy who had the willingness to work in the group. Piggy was symbolized as intellectual boy, Golding showed it in his appearance which is he wore an eyeglasses. Roger was like Jack, cruel boy who brutalized others. And the last, Sam and Eric, they are a pair of twins who had a lot of innocence. In the whole story, the reader can easily find that the narrative is built by so many symbols or we can say it allegory novel which is a story in which characters, setting and actions stand for something beyond themselves, such as abstract ideas, moral qualities and historical figures or events, in this case, story can be read in level of symbolic. Lord of the Flies was written in 1954, it seems that Golding had experienced to World War II when humanity and crime existed on it. It is possible that Golding tries to portray the conflict between evil and civilization on the story of Lord of Flies. The ideas of civilization and savagery appear in both characters Jack and Ralph. In the beginning of the novel, Ralph and Piggy found a conch shell, they decided to use that conch shell to gather the others after the crashed. The shell is being a symbol of civilization, which successfully head the group’s meetings, and for point who is the right to speak by holding its shell. It is safe to assume that the shell is symbol of democratic and to unite each other. But however when the shell loose its power and the boys came to savagery, it influenced among them. Many people who usually live or travel in the jungle believes that focusing the glasses on the sunlight may get a fire. It looks when the boys tried to make a fire by using the lenses from Piggy’s glasses. Golding looks as if he wants to picture Piggy as an intellectual boy among the other boys and the glasses as a symbol of it. Glasses is symbolized the power of science and intellectual attempt in society. Making the signal fire may help so that others can rescue them. Ralph had an idea to climb the mountain and made a smoke therefore if a ship came near the island, they could notice them. The signal fire can be one of symbol to connect to civilization. They want to be rescued and go back to society by making a sign. But when the fire goes low burned or even out, it may assume their desire to be rescued by other is helpless. In the end of the story, the signal fire isn’t a notice to a ship but a fire in the mountain forest as a part of Jack’s savagery to hunt Ralph. The fear of something imaginary leads them to savagely behavior. For the first time, the boys didn’t believe there was a beast on the island, but later on it frightened all of them because the existence of the beast was in their mind. When the boys are wilder the existence of the beast are more real. They consider it as a totemic god and surrender for it. The boy’s behavior brings the beast into existence so it seems like beast become real in soul of them. Golding may portray the beast as a symbol of savagery because the reader may consider it as a monster or evil that against with humanity. In a way, reading this novel is like seeing an adventure to find the existence of personal identity. Golding succeeds in portraying a conflict between humanity and savagery through his novel Lord of the Flies. Showing that God creates people with two sides; civilization and sin. It is a matter how people handle with it and discover the wisdom to know the difference.

American Literacy in the Age of Information Essay Example for Free

American Literacy in the Age of Information Essay The age of information is demonstrated by the development of technology. The American culture has adopted and adapted to a new practice of transmitting and accepting information. Although the age of information presents an outlet for creative expression and exploration, American literacy is in a transitional period because technology is constantly changing and the unlimited amount of capabilities and influence that technology has upon education and communication are significant and since technology is still in the process of development it raises concerns about privacy acts and ethical issues. While this new era enables the opportunity to send and receive information so quickly and efficiently, the new digital age of information requires being educated and knowledgeable about information technology in order to achieve success. Information technology is a term that may be described in many ways but ultimately, information technology (IT) is considered a general term applied to all computer- based technologies of human communications (Information Technology, 2006). Literacy of this time may be simply defined as â€Å"basic competence in reading and writing† (Literacy, 2006). The World Wide Web offers opportunities of unlimited information that could be accessed from anywhere at any time as long as there is internet connection. The freedom to explore and express has two outcomes- to progress society or decline society. Technology has major influences in all trades of the world, but it starts with education. â€Å"Technological education can provide students with a wealth of information and knowledge, which they can then use in the future to pursue related career or simply as a subject of interest and intrigue† (Importance of Technology in Schools, 2009). Creativity and encouragement for young minds to explore all the possibilities produces more productive adults. The introduction of the internet is obviously a worldwide phenomenon. Although this phenomenon provides unlimited access to any genre of information, it may not be true. Educating students on how to productively search for information and how to evaluate credible material makes all of the difference. Furthermore, American literacy is in the process of transition that is constantly improving education and communication. Each individual has different learning capabilities separating themselves from others. The traditional ways of reading and writing with books and pens and paper are updated. It is now made much more convenient, just at a touch! The ability of modern technology provides education for students and adults with special needs that a regular education cannot meet. â€Å"Despite the lack of data showing that technology has a tremendous effect in the classroom; teachers have found that using technology may help address students’ specific learning needs. Charles MacArthur, a special education professor at the University of Delaware, explains that students who have learning disabilities, including dyslexia, typically need help with transcription processes to produce text, spell, and punctuate correctly. However, any students having trouble with writing fluency can benefit from teachers integrating technology into the classroom. And sometimes tried-and-true technology works the best† (Allen, 2008). Addressing students special needs are vital because it encourages and guides them to reach their full potential. The world of technology created an opportunity for special needs students to learn and communicate just as well as independent students. Have you ever wondered what the world would be like without communication? The basic method of communication such as telegraphy advanced to â€Å"snail mail† and it is now at the stage of texting and emailing. Technology is used as a tool in various approaches and may be beneficial or harmful. Finally, the freedom of the new age of information is limitless which raises concerns about privacy laws and ethical issues. With the good, comes the bad. It seems as though there is no way around it. As beneficial as technology is, issues of ethics and privacy concerns Americans who are violated of their personal information. The conveniences of being able to shop, pay bills, create and maintain online accounts online leaves vulnerability to identity thefts and fraud. A USA report suggest that although many Americans acknowledge the potential benefits of being able to interact with government online, similar proportions of the population express concerns about the privacy and security of their personal information submitted through government websites (The New E-Governement equation, 2003). Regulating the internet is going to be a battle. The freedom to explore quality in the truth is a personal right. Criminals and violators will constantly prey on their victims. The resolution lies within the future, but the solution starts with each individual protecting their own identity and prevents fraud and theft. The age of information provides an outlet to send and receive information quickly and efficiently. It is important for students to correctly learn how to utilize the web to enhance their creative expression and information technology comprehension. Education and knowledge is the most powerful took to use when conducting anything. Technology is only progressing and dominating the world. American literacy could not be described as more or less in today’s society but rather enhanced and evolved into normalcy. References: * Education Update:Leveraging Technology to Improve Literacy:Leveraging Technology to Improve Literacy. (2008). Membership, policy, and professional development for educators – ASCD. Retrieved 2012, from http://www.ascd.org/publications/newsletters/education- * Excellence in Government – Home | Online Registration by Cvent. (2003). Retrieved 2012, from http://www.excelgov.org/usermedia/images/uploads/PDFs/egovpoll2003.pdf * Importance of technology in schools | Centre for Education in Science & Technology. (2009).Centre for Education in Science & Technology. Retrieved 2012, from http://www.cest.org.uk/importance-of-technology-in-schools/ * literacy. (2006). In Collins Dictionary of Sociology.